Cyprus is a small island with a long history and a rich culture that spans 10.000 years, making it one of the oldest civilisations in the Mediterranean – as evidenced by the many fascinating cultural sights, museums, monuments and galleries. Situated at the crossroads of three continents – Europe, Asia and Africa – the island’s unique geographic position has played an important part in its turbulent past since antiquity. Its Prehistoric Age inhabitants were joined 3,500 years ago by the Mycenaean Greeks, who introduced and established their civilisation, thus permanently instilling the island’s Greek roots. Many other cultures followed thereafter, including Phoenicians, Assyrians, Egyptians, Romans, Franks, Venetians, Ottomans and British, who all left behind visible remnants of their passage, and have thus created a mosaic of different cultures and periods.

As such, the island is an open-air museum of prehistoric settlements, classical Greek temples, Roman theatres and villas, Early Christian basilicas, Byzantine churches and monasteries, Crusader castles, Gothic cathedrals, Venetian fortifications, Moslem mosques, and British colonial-style buildings. The old ways of life, customs and traditions are still beautifully preserved in the rural villages, and interesting elements of the island are captured in the many museums and galleries. It is not surprising then that UNESCO includes a number of the island’s sights on its list of World Heritage Sites. Whilst the preservation of historical sites and riches is of the upmost priority for the island, these efforts are in stark contrast with the unfortunate reality that a large part of its cultural heritage remains under Turkish occupation since July 1974, and has been subjected to severe damage. But when visiting Cyprus, you will never have to look far to find a piece of its history and culture, whether you want to discover more about the traditions of the island, or immerse yourself in its captivating past.

Kykkos Monastery
Located in the mountainous region of Marathasa Valley, the Monastery of Kykkos is the wealthiest and most lavish on the island, and stands on a mountain peak, at an altitude of 1.318 metres.

Dedicated to Panagia (the Virgin Mary), the monastery possesses one of three icons attributed to Agios Loukas (Apostle Luke) the Evangelist. The icon – covered in silver gilt – is in a shrine made of tortoiseshell and mother-of-pearl that stands in front of the iconostasis.

According to tradition, Cypriot hermit Isaiah miraculously healed the daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos (1081-1118 AD). As a reward, he asked for the icon, and though grieved at the prospect of losing the treasure, the emperor sent it to Cyprus, along with the funds to pay for the construction of a monastery where the sacred relic would be kept. The monastery burned down several times and nothing remains of the original structure.

Today, the monastery produces Zivania spirit and other alcoholic drinks, and holds religious fairs on September 8th (Birth of the Virgin) and August 15th (Dormition of the Virgin). There is also a museum on the grounds, whilst it is noteworthy for being the monastery that the first President of Cyprus, Archbishop Makarios III served at as a novice.

Local Archaeological Kourion Museum, Episkopi
Kourion Archaeological Museum is housed in a traditional building that was once the private residence of the late George McFadden, Assistant Director of the University of Pennsylvania, who led extensive archaeological research at the ancient city of Kourion and its environs from 1934 -1953.

The museum opened in 1969 and consists of two exhibition halls that showcase finds from the nearby archaeological sites, including red polished ware of the Early Bronze age, pottery and golden jewellery of the Mycenaean era, and a large number of offerings from the nearby Sanctuary of Apollon Hylates.

The skeletal remains of inhabitants of the city who lost their lives in the 4th century earthquakes constitute one of the most impressive exhibits of the museum, and were found in situ in a Roman house.

Cyprus Postal Museum
Located within the walled city of Lefkosia (Nicosia), the Cyprus Postal Museum is housed on the ground floor of an old two-storey mansion. It was founded in 1981 to exhibit the rich and diverse material of the island’s postal history, which started from the 15th century, when postal communications to-and-from Cyprus were organised for the first time during the Venetian period.

The halls of the museum exhibit postage stamps and rich philatelic material in chronological order, including material from the period of British Rule. In particular, the oldest series of Cypriot stamps with the portrait of Queen Victoria of England, which are overprinted with the word ‘Cyprus’, as well as the first dedicated Cypriot series of 1928 that depicts historic sites and figures related to the island’s long history.

Other exhibits include ‘first day of issue’ envelopes and stamps issued since the proclamation of the Republic of Cyprus in 1960 until today, and that showcase the island’s historical dates, great figures, culture, touristic sights, monuments and overall contribution to civilization. Methods of insuring post is also displayed, from sealing-wax to machinery, along with weighing scales and other philatelic books and magazines.

Cyprus Museum of Natural History
Located within the grounds of the Carlsberg Brewery, the museum is the largest natural history exhibition of its kind on the island and was founded by ‘The Photos Photiades Charity, Scientific and Cultural Foundation’. Amongst its 2.500 or so exhibits are: embalmed mammals, birds, fish, reptiles and insects, along with rocks, minerals, semi precious stones, shells and fossils.

Aphrodite Cultural Route
Follow in the footsteps of Aphrodite, the Ancient Greek Goddess of Love and Beauty, and protectress of Cyprus, and discover the archaeological sites dedicated to her ancient cult as you wander through layers of history, culture and mythology.

Cyprus has always been considered the ‘Island of Aphrodite’, and no other place in the world can boast of being the birthplace of the Goddess of Love and Beauty. In the 8th century BC, Homer mentions Aphrodite as ‘Kypris’ and ‘Golden Aphrodite’, whilst there are many myths connected to Aphrodite that possibly originated on the island, including those concerning Aphrodite and Hephaistos, Aphrodite and Ares, and Aphrodite and Adonis.

With a historically accurate programme of cultural routes – centred on the search for the traces that Aphrodite has left throughout the island – you will embark upon an enchanted journey through the sites of Palaipafos (Kouklia) in the Pafos (Paphos) region, the ancient city kingdom of Amathus in the Lemesos (Limassol) region, and Kition, in the Larnaka (Larnaca) region. Each is linked to other sites and museums, where artefacts related to the Goddess endure to this day. And upon the way, you will delight in learning all about her birth, mythology and character, as well as the rituals, plants and seashells connected with her cult.

Palaipafos – which is an UNESCO World Heritage Site – has the deepest links with the Goddess, as it is the area that played a central role in the genesis (birth) of Kyprida Aphrodite, and combines the most interesting sites of the route, including the main archaeological site of Palaipafos (Kouklia) and the Chalcolithic site of Lempa. There are also a number of related museums, nature sites and trails in the region.

The ancient city kingdom of Amathus – on the Bay of Lemesos – was probably founded by Greek Mycenaean settlers in the 12th to the 11th centuries BC, and was one of the most important kingdoms where Kyprida Aphrodite was celebrated. The ruins of the temple of Aphrodite can be seen at the main archaeological site of Amathus, whilst the District Museum of Lemesos complements the visit with in-depth information about the celebrated Goddess.

Larnaka and the Agia Napa area offer a combination of sites relating to Aphrodite. The main archaeological site is Kition – Kathari in Larnaka, where visitors can explore the links of the ancient city of Kition with the Goddess Kyprida Aphrodite, along with the area’s ties to the sea, culminating at the Kyprida Aphrodite Nature Trail at Cape Gkreko in Protaras.

Nowhere else will you find legend, history and romance so intricately intertwined, with each new discovery a beautiful reminder of the island’s unique and special bond with Aphrodite.

Antiquity Cultural Route
Discover the rich, historical wonders of an island that has seen many visitors through the ages, and bears the unique mark of each of them. As you follow a route of ancient ancestors, the insight and revelations they offer will transport you back to the adventures of bygone eras and heroic times. From the oldest settlements to grand architectural feats, a vast choice of archaeological sites can be explored, with so many paths leading back to the glorious past.

Begin your journey on the east coast with the ancient city of Kition in Larnaka (Larnaca). The site provides the first clear evidence that the Mycenaean Greeks arrived in Larnaka in the 13th century BC, and the Phoenicians in the 9th, and features temples dating back to these times.

Thereafter, head for new heights between Larnaka and Lemesos (Limassol), where the Neolithic settlement of Choirokoitia stands proudly on the hillside, distinctly marked out by cylindrical stone and mud dwellings that lay claim to the earliest permanent human housing on the island. The site is remarkably well-preserved and has been a listed UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1998.

Further down the southeast coast, the ancient Greco-Roman Kourion stands as one of the island’s top ancient highlights and was an important city-kingdom in antiquity. Its magnificent theatre was built in the 2nd century BC and extended in the 2nd century AD. Today, the theatre has been completely restored and is used for open-air musical and theatrical performances during the summer months, commanding breathtaking views of the surrounding patchwork land and sea.

As you follow the coastline towards Pafos (Paphos), history further comes to life, with the whole town listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, thanks to its world-famous archaeological sites that stretch out from Palaipafos (Kouklia) to the heart of Kato Pafos. Included are ancient villas of stunning mosaics and numerous sites associated to the cult of the Ancient Greek Goddess of Love and Beauty, Aphrodite, whom legend tells was born of sea foam in the region.

Eastern Cultural Route
Take a journey through the picturesque rural areas of the eastern part of the island, where traditional charm has been retained – and continues to defy the hands of time.

The route begins in the Ammochostos (Famagusta) area to visit the farming villages that are collectively known as ‘Kokkinochoria’. Comprised of the two Greek words for ‘red’ and ‘villages’, their name perfectly reveals that it is here that the abundance of the island’s potatoes, strawberries and watermelons are grown, in mineral-rich red soil that gives them a deliciously distinctive taste.

Heading further towards Larnaka (Larnaca), the Greek Orthodox monastery of Stavrovouni sits perched up high on a mountain peak, breathtakingly isolated and straight out of a classic painting. Savour the view before heading for the quaint mountainous village of Lefkara – famous for its handmade lace and filigree silver.

A stroll through its narrow winding lanes will take you past traditional terracotta-roofed houses, where the ladies of Lefkara sit outside, busily hand-embroidering intricate lace linens known as ‘Lefkaritika’. This skilled art has been practised exclusively in Lefkara since Venetian times (1489-1570 AD), when the village was a holiday resort for nobles, and the Venetian noblewomen taught the locals how to make the exquisite drawn-and-counted thread embroidery. The linens became an important trade for Lefkara and were world-renowned, and even the great painter Leonardo Da Vinci bought a large tablecloth for the altar of the Milan Cathedral when he visited the village.

In workshops across Lefkara, a second folk art is also still thriving – that of silverware, and the delicate craft of filigree jewellery known as ‘trifouri’. The cobweb effect of the beautiful handmade earrings, pendants and brooches is created by twisting fine silver wire into various designs. Enjoy a touch of traditional shopping for lace, silverware and other local products before stepping into the Folklore Museum for a journey back in time.

Finally, the adjacent village of Kato Drys (‘lower oak’ in Greek) is equally beguiling with its traditional architecture, beautiful views and interesting museums.

Copper Cultural Route
Cyprus Copper Itinerary – A tour Through the Heart of Cyprus

Uncover the island’s rich and significant historical ties with copper on a self-drive route that will scenically take you on a journey to the various copper mines and associated sites of the island. Along the way, you will discover a fascinating account of how Cyprus was the largest producer and exporter of the metal to the ancient world for many centuries, and its role in shaping the island’s history.

Pure copper – or its alloys – was a basic material needed for the development of large civilisations around the island, and Cyprus’ copper contributed to the technological progress of the entire Mediterranean world and beyond.

The drive starts from either Lemesos (Limassol) or Larnaka (Larnaca) towards the village of Sia (Sha), where just a few kilometres outside of the village you can admire the bright yellow and brown gossans (iron cap) that are typical of areas where there is copper mineralisation. Two open cast copper mines lie to the left – where the rock formations can be studied on a stroll of the site.

The next stop is the Mathiatis South Copper Mine, preceded by fragrant pine trees, which give way to the bright colours of the gossans that will guide you to the lake of the copper mine. A further drive in the Agia Varvara direction takes you up the road, where there is partial view of the North Mathiatis Open Cast Copper Mine.

From there the journey continues further north towards Agia Varvara village, where a turning near the olive oil factory will lead you onwards to a small valley where the Almyras Copper Mine and its workshops are located.

By continuing your drive through the villages of Kotsiatis, Marki and Tseri, the next site of interest is at Katydata village for a visit to the insightful Museum of Mining Heritage*.

The Skouriotissa Copper Mine and abandoned village are only a five-minute drive from Katydata. To the southwest of the copper mine is the UNFICYP San Martin camp, where you can visit the chapel of Panagia Skouriotissa: ‘Our Lady of the Skouriotissa Copper Mine’, which dates back to around 16th century, and houses some interesting icons. Northwest you will encounter abandoned houses that were built by the mining company CMC, and were used by the miners until 1974. A newly established monastery is situated a few hundred metres from some of the abandoned houses, and is also an interesting sight.

The Cyprus Copper route cannot fail to conjure to mind the rich and vivid past of ancient kingdoms, and the major part that copper played in their development, making it both an interesting and informative day out.

Combining the allure of a sunshine island with first-rate healthcare facilities and attractive fees, Cyprus is fast becoming a favoured option for medical tourism. And with the added bonus of recuperating in relaxing surroundings that are conducive to healing, it is no wonder that an increasing number of patients are choosing the island for their treatments. Alongside conventional medical treatments – that take place in the comfort of modern hospitals and clinics – the island is also home to luxury spa resorts and rural retreats, where comfort and nature harmoniously intertwine with health. Pampering, holistic therapies, beauty treatments and a general sense of wellbeing are all invoked, along with the feeling of escaping and focusing solely on oneself… without the stresses or distractions of daily life.

Whether you are undergoing a medical procedure or enjoying a spa indulgence, other aspects of the island also link with its suitability to healthy living. With the health attributes of the Mediterranean diet widely recognised, and the island’s abundance of fresh, local produce that bursts with flavour, eating well is a pleasure that comes easy in Cyprus. And with it comes the added bonus of enjoying your dining outdoors… with panoramic sea or mountain views. The fantastic year-round climate of dry summers and mild winters, also allows for a myriad of activities and pursuits, from walking and cycling to swimming and diving, whilst the areas of stunning natural beauty – from coast to forest – are soothing to all of the senses.
The finishing touch comes in more practical forms; the island’s enviable location makes it quickly accessible from a number of destinations; English and other languages are used extensively in the medical and tourism industries, and medical and wellness professionals and staff are all highly-trained and vastly experienced.

With health and wellness being such important gifts, you deserve to give yourself the best, and Cyprus provides the facilities, atmosphere and all the extra incentives to ensure you feel confident and relaxed that your health is in the most healing of hands.

A True Sense of Wellbeing
Aphrodite’s island has held the key to beauty and health for centuries, with the Goddess herself symbolising eternal youth and wellbeing. Today, Cyprus continues to induce and inspire an atmosphere of healthy living and a sense of total wellness through a combination of factors, from its Mediterranean charm and climate, to the extensive selection of premium spas and wellness centres.

Select your experience from being pampered in the luxury of world-class spas and spa resorts, to the grounding tranquillity of nature’s lush surroundings of greenery, blue seas and golden coasts. Whether you prefer the comfort of refinery or to immerse yourself in the island’s landscape, your total relaxation and rejuvenation is guaranteed.

With its alluring combination of year round sunshine, picture-perfect surroundings, and an environment conducive to healthy eating and leisure pursuits, the island has all the elements in place to invoke a true sense of harmony. This is further enhanced by impeccable accommodation, attentive and experienced staff, and a myriad of facilities designed for surrendering to.

Indoor and outdoor pools, freshwater and saltwater pools, whirlpools, saunas, steam rooms, hamams, fully equipped gyms, fitness studios, treatment rooms and beauty salons are just the start… there you will find an immense range of treatments and packages on offer for your revitalisation, including detoxifying algae and mud body wraps, aromatherapy, thalassotherapy, hot stone therapy, massages, shiatsu, reflexology, natural therapies and beauty treatments, along with so many other delectable treatments.

The linking services continue with counselling and fitness assessments to fit your own specific requirements, and personalised sessions to make you feel special, whilst the island is also home to its own holistic health secrets with an array of locally grown herbs and plants that are all put to good use.

So, for blissful relaxation, the chance to unwind and de-stress, or the opportunity to start or enhance your beauty or fitness regime, Cyprus has not only maintained Aphrodite’s secrets… but has built upon them in the most indulgently exquisite of ways.

Premium Medical Tourism
Combining healthcare with a relaxing holiday offers the benefits of top medical treatment at cost effective prices, coupled with the opportunity to recuperate on a beautiful sunshine island that is restorative to the mind and soul, as well as the body.

Cyprus is fast becoming a popular choice for medical tourism, thanks to a large array of modern private hospitals and clinics; excellent facilities with state-of-the-art equipment, and experienced and highly-qualified doctors and medical staff – largely trained in Europe or the USA. As such, it offers a one-stop service from treatment to recuperation.

From annual check-ups, cosmetic or reconstructive surgery, physiotherapy, kidney dialysis, cardiac care, dental and surgical procedures, to infertility treatment, the island offers attractively priced healthcare holidays, with added incentives and advantages.

The convenience factor encompasses the island’s enviable location that is easily accessible from many countries, whilst also allowing patients to book an operation upon arrival. Same day appointments are the norm, and you can see an astounding range of specialists either in a single medical centre, or within a short drive apart.

A considerable number of clinical laboratories offer a vast range of diagnostic tests both routine and specialised, whilst turnaround times for test results and doctor’s diagnosis are all speedy. Care is given by teams of highly trained medical and auxiliary staff who all speak English, whilst a large number of physicians also speak other languages, including Russian, German, French and Arabic.

As a small island, distances are short, placing everything at your fingertips, for both medical purposes and for the recuperation phase, where you can easily connect to a range of beautiful and serene surroundings, leisurely activities, gentle sports – and enjoy the healthy Mediterranean diet. And with sunshine for most of the year round, you don’t have to be confined to recovering indoors.

The ritual of sharing good, fresh local cuisine is an important part of the island’s culture, and is intrinsically linked with every social event, from family gatherings and special occasions to religious festivals… each marked with its own distinct delicacies and recipes. From hearty meat dishes and specialty cheeses to unique desserts of carob and grape, the Cypriot cuisine is an exotic blend of Greek and Middle Eastern cultures, sprinkled with remnants of ancient civilisations such as indigenous Roman root vegetables or old Phoenician delicacies. And it is no secret that the ‘Mediterranean diet’ is considered to be of the healthiest, thanks to its abundance of heart-healthy olive oil, pulses, lean meat, local herbs and freshly grown fruits and vegetables. Add to this the favourable climate – that gives the fresh produce its intense flavour – and a celebration around every corner, complete with special treats, and you will find a big gastronomic adventure awaits on this tiny island!

Synonymous with Cypriot cuisine is the ‘meze’ – a variety of small dishes that combine to create a feast, and a good starting point to become acquainted with the local dishes, such as moreish dips, braised, stewed and clay-cooked meats; local, freshly caught fish; pulses and legumes in various sauces; specialty cheeses and delicatessen cuts, and more unusual bites, all authentically prepared.
And if you are visiting the island during a festival or holiday period, an amazing array of treats and dishes unique to the event appear to mark the occasion, often made by the women of the family, who gather together on specific days to share in the traditions passed down from generation to generation…

…and that remain today so that both locals and visitors alike can continue to enjoy, savour and share the mouth-watering, appetising, fragrant and abundant everyday experience that Cypriot cuisine!

Commandaria
Cyprus can proudly lay claim to the world’s oldest wine still in production – that of the delicious sweet dessert wine Commandaria.

Thought to date back to 800 BC, references to the consumption of a wine named ‘Cypriot Nama’ is believed to have been Commandaria before it was given its current name during the crusades in the 12th century. It was thought that the wine had therapeutic qualities and it was widely used as a tonic.

Richard the Lionheart celebrated his capture of Cyprus and his marriage to Berengaria in Lemesos (Limassol) with Commandaria, declaring it “the wine of kings and the king of wines”. In 1192 he sold the island to the Knights of St. John and the Knight Templars, who then sold it to Guy de Lusignan, but kept their headquarters at Kolossi. Commandaria was mainly produced in Kolossi – which was called ‘La Grande Commanderie’ – and it was here that the wine found its name. Commandaria was considered so good in ancient times that it even won the first recorded wine tasting competition the ‘Battle of the Wines’ in the 13th century, held by the French king Philip Augustus.

Sweetly similar to sherry, Commandaria has been made in the same manner for centuries, and in the same 14 winegrowing villages of the island. The indigenous grape varieties of Mavro (red) and Xynisteri (white) are picked late and dried in the sun to enhance their sugar content, giving the drink its distinctive taste. The dried grapes are then pressed, with the run-off collected and fermented in tanks or huge earthenware jars – much like those used in bygone times.

No visit to the island is complete without picking up a bottle to take home, not just as a drink, but also as a sweet piece of the island’s history!

Brandy Sour
The national cocktail of the island is undoubtedly the famous Brandy Sour, and although it is also enjoyed in other parts of the world, the Cypriot version is unique for the Cypriot brandy used in it and its interesting, royal origins!

The story goes that it was originally invented in the early fifties for King Farouk of Egypt at one of the island’s oldest hotels in the Troodos mountains. As the king loved Cypriot Brandy, the staff created a drink using brandy that looked like an innocent ice-tea, so that it wouldn’t be obvious he was enjoying alcohol!

The cocktail is made with Cypriot brandy – which is milder than Cognac or Armagnac – lemons (fresh or squash), Angostura bitters, soda water (or lemonade) and ice.

As well as enjoying it during your visit to the island, you can make the cocktail back home by buying a bottle – or two – of Cypriot brandy whilst you are here!

A trip through Lebanon is a journey through the annals of some of the world’s greatest civilizations. With over 5,000 years of recorded history, the country is a treasure trove of archaeological wonders, waiting to be discovered by visitors who want a glimpse into the ancient and modern past. Most of Lebanon’s historical sites have layers upon layers of ruins, with each layer uncovering the story of another civilization that inhabited this ancient land.
– Prehistoric Times
– Phoenicians
– Greeks
– Romans
– Byzantines
– Arabs
– Crusaders
– Mamlukes & Ottomans

Prehistoric Times (5,000-3,500 B.C.)
A trip through Lebanon’s history begins in Jbail (Byblos), where archaeologists have discovered the earliest known settlements in Lebanon. Today, remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,000 years ago.

Phoenicians (3,500-334 B.C.)
Lebanon first appeared in recorded history around 3,000 BC, with the settlement of the area by the Canaanites. The Canaanites established great maritime, trade, and religious city-states in several of Lebanon’s coastal cities: Jbail (Byblos), Sour (Tyre), Saida (Sidon), and Beirut. The Greeks referred to these Semitic people as “Phoenicians,” after the Greek word for the expensive purple-dyed textiles that the Phoenicians exported.

Jbail (Byblos) was a significant Phoenician religious center and also an important trading center with close links to the Egyptian Pharaohs. The city is also recognized as the birthplace of the modern Roman alphabet, which evolved from Phoenician phonetic script. Phoenician ruins include the remnants of fortified city walls and gates, several temples, and the underground tombs of the Byblos kings.

Saida (Sidon) became a dominant commercial center for the region during the 12th-10th centuries B.C. Close to Saida (Sidon), visitors can view the ruins of the Phoenician Temple of Echmoun, a complex honoring the principal god of the city of Saida (Sidon). This is the best-preserved Phoenician site in Lebanon today.
The Phoenician island city of Sour (Tyre) surpassed Saida to become the dominant trading center under its most famous ruler, King Hiram I (10th century B.C.). Allied with King Solomon, King Hiram I led the Phoenician expansion into Sicily and North Africa. During this time, the Mediterranean Sea became known as the “Tyrian Sea.” King Hiram is also remembered for supporting the construction of Solomon’s Temple in Jerusalem by supplying labor, gold, and cedar wood. While there are few evident Phoenician ruins in Sour (Tyre) today, visitors can see the jetties and breakwaters from the ancient island cities just off the coast of the city. The Tomb of King Hiram is also located just a few kilometers from Sour (Tyre).

Baalbek was an inland city, at the crossroads of the major north-south and east-west trading routes, settled by the Phoenicians as early as 2,000 B.C. The Phoenicians built the first temple here, dedicated to the god Baal, the Sun God, from which the city got its name. Today, Baalbek’s Phoenician origins have been covered and eclipsed by the great Roman temples later built on the site.

Greeks (333-64 B.C.)
In 333 B.C., Alexander the Great conquered the Phoenician city-states, and ancient Phoenicia was absorbed into the Greek Empire (which covered Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East). Greek customs and the Greek language were adopted. Alexander the Great died in 323 B.C. (only 10 years after his conquest of the Middle East), and over 250 years of unrest and dynastic struggles followed. Greek rule in the region was finally overturned by the Roman General Pompey in 64 B.C.
While there are no significant ruins from the Hellenistic period in Lebanon, one notable Greek site for history-lovers is in Sour (Tyre). While most of the Phoenician cities submitted immediately to Alexander the Great’s conquest in 333 B.C., Sour (Tyre) resisted in a year-long siege that destroyed much of the city. Alexander used the debris from the abandoned mainland city to build a causeway to reach the fortified island city and eventually conquer the Tyrians. Today, this causeway has been enlarged with sand to form a peninsula that connects the ancient island city to the mainland. As you walk between the major archaeological sites in Sour (Tyre), you will cross this “Quarter of Sand” (Hay El-Ramel) that was once Alexander’s causeway.

Romans (64 B.C. – 399 A.D.)
Roman rule in Lebanon lasted over 300 years. During this period, the old Phoenician cities continued to grow and prosper as centers of industry and commerce. The coastal cities (Saida, Sour, Beirut) exported cedar, perfume, jewelry, wine, and fruit to Rome and served as trading centers for goods imported from Syria, Persia, and India. Local industries, including the production of silk, glass, purple-dyed textiles, and pottery, flourished under the Romans. Temples and palaces were built throughout the country, as well as paved roads that linked the cities. Christianity also spread to Lebanon during this era, and flourished as the Roman emperors officially adopted the religion.
For a modern-day visitor, it is difficult to travel more than a few kilometers in Lebanon without running into a Roman-era ruin. The country is home to some of the best-preserved and most impressive Roman sites in the world, most notably at Baalbek and Sour (Tyre).

Baalbek’s impressive complex of temples and city ruins includes the Temple of Bacchus (the best-preserved temple in the Middle East) and the columns of the Temple of Jupiter (the largest Roman temple ever constructed). Under the Romans, Baalbek, or the “City of the Sun,” was a major religious center that served as a testament to the power and wealth of the Roman Empire.

The city of Sour (Tyre) became the capital of the Roman province of Syria-Phoenicia. Roman-era highlights include the world’s largest Roman hippodrome (where chariot races were held), an enormous triumphal arch, an extensive necropolis, and the remains of Roman aqueducts.
In Jbail (Byblos), artifacts include the remains of a Roman theater, columns lining the main thoroughfare of the ancient city, and a Roman nympheum (a monumental public fountain).

In the Central Business District of Beirut, visitors can view the remains of a large Roman bath complex and a market area, as well as the columns and foundations of large buildings.

Byzantines (399-636 A.D.)
The Byzantine era in Lebanon began with the split of the Roman Empire in 395 A.D. into the eastern/Byzantine part (with its capital at Constantinople) and the western part (with its capital at Rome). As the Western Roman Empire declined, the Byzantine Empire grew and commercial and intellectual growth in Lebanon’s cities continued.

However, around the 5th and 6th centuries A.D., ecumenical debates and corruption in the church led to increasing unrest. From this religious dissension, the Maronite Church was established and took refuge in the mountainous Qadisha Valley region of Lebanon, and the Valley has remained a place of spiritual refuge and pilgrimage to this day. There are many archaeological remains of Lebanon’s Byzantine era around the country, many built on top of and added to previous civilizations’ cities and sites.

In Baalbek, Byzantine Emperor Theodosius tore down the altars of the Temple of Jupiter and built a basilica using the temple’s stones and architectural elements. The remnants of this basilica can still be seen near the stairway of the Temple.

In Sour (Tyre), the city entered a golden era during this time period. Today, Byzantine stone mosaics line the ancient colonnaded street at the Al-Mina archaeological site (“City Site”). The Al-Bass Site contains the remains of a Byzantine church, as well as a necropolis containing hundreds of ornate stone and marble sarcophagi from the Roman and Byzantine periods.

Arabs (660-1258 A.D.)
Many clashes took place at this period between the Byzantine Empire and its opponents mainly the Muslims whose widespread reached the borders of the empire.
The Umayyad Dynasty, which flourished for 100 years (660-750 A.D.) in the first century after Muhammed, was the first of two dynasties of the Arab Islamic empire. The Umayyad caliphs were notable for establishing a large empire, which extended from Spain, through North Africa, to Central Asia. They established Arabic as the official language of the empire, and they are remembered for their excellent city administration and planning and their patronage of early Islamic art and architecture. Following a coup, the Umayyads were replaced by the Abbasid Dynasty (750-1258 A.D.), who shifted power eastward to Baghdad and imposed harsh control in Lebanon and Syria, leading to many local revolts.

Under Arab rule, the region of Lebanon became a refuge for many ethnic and religious groups. Splinter Christian groups, including the Maronites and the Melchites, settled in the Qadisha Valley and Zahlé. Islamic followers of an Egyptian caliph settled in southern Lebanon and established the Druze sect, still a major religious group in the Chouf and other areas of modern-day Lebanon. Shiite Muslims from Egypt also had increasing influence in the region during this era.
Lebanon’s cities continued to prosper as trading and industrial centers under Arab rule. However, there are few archaeological remnants of this period in Lebanon today.

The impressive city of Aanjar is the only known remain of the 8th century Umayyad Dynasty in Lebanon. Thought to be the summer home of Caliph Walid I, Aanjar was a major commercial center for the region and contains the remains of over 600 small shops, colonnaded boulevards, baths, and temples.

Crusaders (1099-1291 A.D.)
As Arab leadership fragmented, and following Caliph Al-Hakim’s occupation of Christian holy places in Palestine and destruction of the Holy Sepulcher, the Christians of western Europe undertook a series of “Crusades” to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. The European Crusaders joined with the Byzantine army to take Jerusalem and then marched along the Lebanese coast. Between 1109 and 1124, Lebanon’s key cities (Tripoli, Beirut, Saida, Sour) were all conquered by the Crusaders. Soon after, the Muslim reconquest began, led by Saladin, with the region returning to Muslim control by 1291.

One lasting influence of the Crusades in Lebanon was the creation of renewed linkages between the Maronites and the Roman Catholics. In 1180, the Maronite Church entered a formal union with the Roman Catholic Church, a union that still exists today. There are also numerous archaeological remnants (towers, castles, and churches) of the Crusades scattered along the Lebanese coast and throughout the countryside. Notable sites include:

The Saida Sea Castle, which sits on a small island in the harbor, connected by a stone bridge to mainland Saida (Sidon).
The Citadel of Saint-Gilles, a large fortress on a hill in the center of Tripoli.
The ruins of the stone walls and moats of a Crusader castle can be seen in the town of Enfé, south of Tripoli.
The ruins of the Holy Cross Cathedral, an important Crusader church in Sour (Tyre).

Mamlukes (1250-1516 A.D.) & Ottomans (1516-1914 A.D.)
Following the Crusades, modern-day Lebanon, Syria, and Egypt came under the control of the Mamlukes. The Mamlukes were originally slave bodyguards (from the Caspian and Caucasus regions) for the Egyptian Ayoubid sultans. However, the Mamlukes overthrew their masters and formed the Mamluke Sultanate. Many Shiite Muslims migrated to Lebanon during this period, and there were increasing religious tensions. After a number of rebellions near Beirut were crushed, the Shiites moved to settle in Southern Lebanon.

The Mamlukes were defeated by the Turkish Ottomans in 1516, and the Ottomans dominated the region for the four centuries preceding World War I.

A tour in the Lebanese History:
At origins: Archeologists in Lebanon have discovered remnants around a million years old, and human traces from the Paleolithic era (around 8,500 B.C.) in grottos.

The Phoenician Era: The history of Lebanon as we know it starts with the Cannanean – Phoenician civilizations. Around 3,500 B.C., the Phoenicians put up their trading counters on the Lebanese coast. These trading city-states rapidly become small yet wealthy kingdoms, like Byblos, Tyre, Sidon, and Arados.
800 B.C.: The Phoenician’s long-lived prosperity starts to decline with the uprising of the Assyrian empire. The latter will be followed by the Babylonians, the Persians and the Greeks.
64 B.C.: The last of the Phoenician cities surrender to the Syrian province of the Roman Empire after their conquest of Pompée.
Up to the year 395 A.C: Commercial and cultural activities prosper and Christianity develops under the Roman domination. Then the Byzantine Empire takes over the control of the region.
637 A.C: Lebanon is conquered by the Arabs and becomes a state of the Omayyad califes before it becomes dominated by the Francs from 1099 to 1291 A.C..
1291 to 1516 A.C.: The crusaders are driven away by the Mamelouks who develop Beirut’s commercial port’s activities.
1516 to 1918 A.C.: The Ottomans reign over the country as masters, however leaving its management to the local emirs.
During the 19th century: Lebanons’ fate vacillates between the Ottoman power and an autonomy that was imposed by Europe. The latter supported the local development of religious communities. A portion of the country’s population, supported by the Europeans, demands its autonomy.
1841: The Mount Lebanon Province is divided into two districts: to the North, the maronites (Bikfaya and the Metn), and to the South the Druze (Beit ed-Dine and the Chouf).
1860: Following the massacre of thousands of Christians by the Druze and Ottomans, Napoleon the 3rd sends an expeditionary mission to Lebanon. This will lead to the autonomy of Lebanon in 1864.
1866: The American University in Beirut is founded.
1875: The St Joseph University is founded.
1916: France and Great Britain sign the Sykes-Picot treaties. Russia ratifies the treaties which separate the Ottoman Empire into influential zones. France awards itself the libanese-syrian coastal strip, among other territories.
1920: Marks the start of the French mandate following the signature of the Sèvres treaty. The state of Great Lebanon is proclaimed.
1943: The independence of the Lebanese Republic is effective on the 22nd of November. Bechara El-Khoury and Ryad Solh conclude a “national pact” which sets the rules of representation for each religious community.
1945: Lebanon participates to the foundation of the Arab League.
1946: French troops leave Lebanon from March to December. The first twenty years of independence are those of great economic prosperity in the Lebanese Republic.
1958: Lebanon is shaken by a civil war (May till September) that is motivated by a disagreement on Egypt and Syria’s joining into the United Arab Republic. President Camille Chamoun, who was opposed to Gamal A.Nasser, calls the United States to the rescue in an effort to save his regime. American troops are sent to Lebanon, however it is the election of President General Chehab that will resolve the crisis. The latter will conduct a policy centered on Arab solidarity.
1967: The 6 Days war drives around 450,000 Palestinians to find refuge in Lebanon.
1969: The first conflict between the Lebanese Government and the Palestinian movement leads to the Cairo agreements which authorized the presence of the Palestinian army in South Lebanon.
1973: Confrontations between the Lebanese army and the Palestinian PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) militia become more and more frequent. Moreover, a number of Palestinian leaders are assassinated by the Israeli commandos. Tension builds up and leads to the burst of the civil war in April 1975.
1975 – 1989: Lebanon endures the civil war.
1976: Syrian troops make an entry in Lebanon in June.
1978: The Syrian troops turn against the Lebanese “Phalangistes”, while Israel occupies the southern Lebanese territory up to the Litani river.
1982: Israel initiates operation “Peace in Galilee” and reaches Beyrouth. The siege of the capital forces the PLO and its leader to flee Beyrouth. The same year, the massacres of the Sabra and Chatila camps are perpetrated.
1984: The Multinational Peace Force leaves Lebanon as violence takes on new heights.
1985: Israel retrieves from the Lebanese Territory but retains the control of a “Security Zone” on the Southern border.
1989: The Taëf agreements are signed on the 22nd of October in Saudi Arabia, thus putting an end to the civil war. The agreements recommend an equitable redistribution of power and a revision of the Lebanese constitution. Following the assassination of President René Moawad, Elias Hraoui is elected to the Presidency of the Lebanese Republic.
1990: The 2nd Lebanese Republic is proclaimed.
1991: Lebanon and Syria sign a common treaty. The new national coalition government summons the break down of armed militias.
1992: Rafic Hariri is elected Prime Minister in October, and the reconstruction of the country and its capital begins.
1996: Israel launches an armed operation called “the Grapes of Wrath” against the Hezbollah positions in Southern Lebanon.
1998: General Emile Lahoud is elected President on the 24th of November.
2000: In May, Israel retrieves its troops from the south.
2005: On the 14th of February, Prime Minister Rafic Hariri is killed, along with 22 others, in a car bomb attack.
2005: In April, Syria retrieves all of its troops from Lebanon in accordance with an agreement signed with the UN.
2006: Israel carries a military offensive in Lebanon from the 12th until the 14th of August.
2008:(25 May) the election of General Michel Sleiman as President of the republic.

Lebanon’s diverse patchwork of Mediterranean-lapped coast, rugged alpine peaks, and green fertile valleys is packed into a parcel of land some 225km long and 46km wide – an area approximately the size of Cyprus or Connecticut. An ancient land, Lebanon features in the writings of Homer and in the Old Testament. Its cities were major outposts and seaports in Phoenician and Roman times, just two of the great civilizations that touched this important Middle Eastern crossroads.

The cosmopolitan flair of modern-day Beirut, the gastronomic renown of the country’s food and wine, and an educated and outward-looking population complement a country that is both traditional and progressive in outlook. For all the flavors of its storied past and rugged natural beauty, Lebanon is a well-kept tourist secret that begs exploration.

There are four main geographic regions in Lebanon, differentiated by topography and climate. From west to east, they include: the coastal plain, the Mount Lebanon Range, the Békaa Valley, and the Anti-Lebanon Range.

The Anti-Lebanon Range is a stretch of arid mountains that rise to the east of the Békaa Valley and form part of the country’s eastern border with Syria.

The Békaa Valley, known in ancient times as “the breadbasket” or “granary” of the Roman Empire, is still the country’s main agricultural region. Located on a high plateau between the country’s two mountain ranges, the river-fed Békaa supports the production of tomatoes, potatoes, wheat, olives, and grapes, even despite summers that are hot and dry.

Besides some of Lebanon’s best wineries (Ksara, Kefraya, Massaya), the Békaa’s major attraction is the ruins at Baalbek. Originating as a place of worship to Baal, the Phoenician Sun God, Baalbek was known in Greco-Roman times as the famous Heliopolis, or “City of the Sun.” Perhaps because of the region’s agricultural importance in feeding the inhabitants of the Roman Empire, some of the largest Roman temples ever constructed were erected at this site. The construction lasted over 200 years, and the well-preserved temples honor Jupiter, Bacchus, and Venus.

The lovely Lebanese coast is framed by the Mediterranean Sea to the west and the Mount Lebanon Range to the east, its temperate climate bringing in sunny, hot summers and cool, rainy winters. The daytime temperature in the summer, which averages 30°C (86°F), encourages people to head to the beach or to the higher, altitude-cooled mountain slopes. In the coastal cities of Saida (Sidon) and Jbail (Byblos), tourists can enjoy the rare opportunity to snorkel amongst long-submerged Phoenician ruins, while excellent hiking is a mere hour away in the Chouf region of the Mount Lebanon Range.

The Mount Lebanon Range includes numerous rivers that fizz with snowmelt, steep-walled gullies that shade grottoes once the hideout to those fleeing persecution, and also Lebanon’s highest summit, Qornet Es-Saouda (3,090m). In winter, the high peaks are blanketed with snow, lending Lebanon its name, Lubnan, the Arabic word for “white.” Lebanon boasts a number of world-class ski resorts, one of only a couple countries in the Middle East where you can ski. The ski season runs from December until April.

The Mount Lebanon Range is also the location of Lebanon’s Cedar Reserves. The great cedar forests of Lebanon, now protected, are famous for their use in the construction of some of the holiest buildings in the region, indeed the world, including Jerusalem’s Dome of the Rock and Solomon’s Temple.

To visit Lebanon is to dispel preconceived notions that linger from a relatively short moment in a long, vivid, and fascinating history: drink in the energetic, urbane vibe of revitalized Beirut; explore a diverse and beautiful landscape that lends itself easily to an unforgettable (and largely untrammeled) multi-sport adventure; marvel at archaeological wonders that are windows into the cradle of civilization; and simply enjoy the welcome of a people who are naturally hospitable, friendly, and gregarious.

Ethnic and linguistic composition
Lebanon has a heterogeneous society composed of numerous ethnic, religious, and kinship groups. Long-standing attachments and local communalism antedate the creation of the present territorial and political entity and continue to survive with remarkable tenacity. Ethnically, the Lebanese compose a mixture in which Phoenician, Greek, Armenian, and Arab elements are discernible. Within the larger Lebanese community, ethnic minorities including Armenian and Kurdish populations are also present. Arabic is the official language, although smaller proportions of the population are Armenian- or Kurdish-speaking; French and English are also spoken. Syriac is used in some of the churches of the Maronites (Roman Catholics following an Eastern rite).

Religion
Perhaps the most distinctive feature of Lebanon’s social structure is its varied religious composition. Since the 7th century, Lebanon has served as a refuge for persecuted Christian and Muslim groups. As religion and government in Lebanon are deeply and formally intertwined, the relative proportions of the country’s religious communities is a highly sensitive matter. There has not been an official census since 1932, however, and the data depicting Lebanon’s confessional composition are variable. In general terms, the two largest groups are the Shiʿi Muslims and the Sunni Muslims, each comprising more than one-fourth of the population. Maronites, a Roman Catholic Eastern rite group that originated in the region, make up more than one-fifth of the population. A number of other Christian communities are also present, including the Greek Orthodox and the Greek Catholics. The Druze constitute a small percentage of the population but play an influential role in Lebanese society. There is also a very small Jewish minority.

Cultural milieu
Historically, Lebanon is heir to a long succession of Mediterranean cultures—Phoenician, Greek, and Arab. Its cultural milieu continues to show clear manifestations of a rich and diverse heritage. As an Arab country, Lebanon shares more than a common language with neighbouring Arab states: it also has a similar cultural heritage and common interests.

A number of Lebanon’s rich cultural sites have been designated UNESCO World Heritage sites: the remains of the city of ʿAnjar (founded by al-Walīd in the early 8th century); the ruins of successive cultures at the old Phoenician cities of Baalbek, Byblos, and Tyre; and the Christian monasteries in Wadi Qādīshā, together with the nearby remains of a sacred forest of long-prized cedar.

Daily life and social customs
Lebanon’s diverse culture is a result of its admixture of various religious, linguistic, and socioeconomic groups. Family and kinship play a central role in Lebanese social relationships, in both the private and public spheres. Although family structure is traditionally largely patriarchal, women are active in education and politics.

Lebanese cuisine is characterized by a healthy mixture of herbs and vegetables, fruit, olives, olive oil, laban (yogurt), rice, and khubz (flatbread). Meals often consist of a selection of shared dishes presented all at once on several small plates, often including hummus, stuffed grape leaves, pickled vegetables, grilled meats, and tabbouleh (tabbūlah), a salad made from herbs, tomato, onion, bulgur wheat, lemon juice, and olive oil. Kibbah, an oval ball of seasoned meat stuffed into a dough made from bulgur and meat, is often considered the national dish.

Because of the country’s diverse religious makeup, Lebanese citizens observe a variety of holidays. Those celebrated by the Christian community include Easter and Christmas, the dates of which vary, as elsewhere, between the Catholic and Orthodox communities. Eid al-Fitr (which marks the end of Ramadan), Eid al-Adha (which marks the culmination of the hajj), and the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday are celebrated by Lebanese Muslims; ʿĀshūrāʾ, a holiday particular to Shiʿi Muslims, is also observed. In addition, there are several national holidays, including Liberation Day on May 25 and Independence Day on November 22.

The arts
Lebanon’s antiquities and ruins have provided not only inspiration for artists but also magnificent backdrops for annual music festivals, most notably the Baalbek International Festival. At one time, international opera, ballet, symphony, and drama companies of nearly all nationalities competed to enrich the cultural life of Beirut. Following the end of the civil war in 1990, Lebanon’s cultural life gradually began to reemerge, though that revival remained subject to interruption by periods of violence in the late 20th and early 21st centuries.

Lebanon has produced a number of gifted young artists who have shown a refreshing readiness to experiment with new expressive forms. Some Lebanese are active in international opera, theatre companies, and television and movie productions, while others are intent on creating a wider audience for classical Arabic music and theatre. Other artists have remained cultural staples for many years: with a career spanning several decades, the immensely popular Lebanese singer Fairouz (Fayrūz) remains a well-known vocalist and a treasured cultural icon.

The cultural awakening encouraged the revival of national folk arts, particularly song, dabkah (the national dance), and zajal (folk poetry), and the refinement of traditional crafts.

In the 19th century Lebanese linguists were in the vanguard of the Arabic literary awakening (al-nahḍah al-adabiyyah). In more recent times writers of the calibre of Khalil Gibran, Georges Shehade, Michel Chiha, and Hanan al-Shaykh have been widely translated and have reached an international audience.

A KALEIDOSCOPE OF HISTORY AND LEGENDS
The Sultanate of Oman is a country of breath-taking natural beauty, interwoven with a kaleidoscope of history and legends. As the oldest independent state in the Arab World, Oman has embraced modernisation and progress while retaining the core aspects of its culture and heritage – making it the perfect travel destination for those seeking an authentic Arabian experience.

Thanks to its strategic position at the tip of the Arabian Peninsula, the Sultanate has always played a major role in trade including the ancient Silk Road and Spice Routes where Oman served as a gateway for all ships traversing the Strait of Hormuz, Indian Ocean or the Arabian Sea. Al Wattih, in the Muscat region, is thought to be one of the world’s first inhabited settlements, with artefacts found to date back to the Stone Age. Later, and before the coming of Islam, Oman was dominated by the Assyrians, Babylonians and Persians – each of whom sought to use Oman’s strategic location to trade with the world. It was with the spread of Islam in Oman, around the 7th century, that the first place of worship was built. The Al Midhmar mosque in Wilayat Samail still stands to this day, having been rebuilt at various times throughout the centuries.

Over the coming centuries, the rule in Oman divided amongst a variety of dynasties, imamates and foreign powers, including the Portuguese from 1498 to 1507. Oman’s history tells the story of Omani people expelling the Portuguese to unite under Iman Nasser bin Murshid in 1624.

In the years that followed, the Sultanate expanded to include cities along the East African coast, from Mombasa to Zanzibar.

In 1798, Oman and Great Britain signed a Treaty of Friendship and, by 1891, Oman and Muscat had become a British Protectorate. For much of this period, the Sultan controlled the coast around Muscat while the Imam governed the interior from Nizwa. Under the 1951 Treaty of Friendship, Commerce and Navigation, Oman received independence from Britain.

Following this independence, the country was brought under the leadership of Sultan Said bin Taimur. However, it was not until his son – His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said – ascended to the throne in 1970 that Oman entered a modern renaissance, evolving into the contemporary, forward facing country it is today.

It is His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said’s foresight and benevolence that has helped to secure Oman’s continued prosperity and ensured that the country remains one of the safest in the world.

A PEACEFUL AND ACCEPTING CULTURE
His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said has successfully united all tribes since his ascension in 1970, ensuring that the country and its people work together to build the country. Oman has a population of just over 4 million people. It is an Islamic country which is very accepting of other religions and cultures, allowing anyone to practice their faith freely without prejudice.

It is this kind of peaceful and accepting culture that makes Oman one of the safest and most liveable countries in the world. Omanis are very welcoming of visitors from other countries, a fact that is reflected in the generous hospitality extended to guests.

GENEROUS HOSPITALITY EXTENDED TO GUESTS
Oman’s culture is deeply rooted in the Sultanate’s proud heritage and history of seafaring, trading and exploration. Today, long-standing traditions blend seamlessly with modern day living, with the latest fashion and electronics brands sold alongside traditional hand-made crafts, jewellery, and even goats and cattle at souqs around the country.

Despite Oman’s relatively rapid transformation to a modern society since His Majesty Sultan Qaboos bin Said ascended the throne in 1970 but the country has never lost sight of its roots. Traditional Omani culture is embedded in nearly every aspect of daily life, from clothing and food, arts and crafts, to the way Omanis welcome visitors. The uniquely Omani culture and heritage continues today in many of the same ways it has been for hundreds of years.

The pre-Islamic period
For more than two millennia prior to the arrival of Islam, Yemen was the home of a series of powerful and wealthy city-states and empires whose prosperity was largely based upon their control over the production of frankincense and myrrh, two of the most highly prized commodities of the ancient world, and their exclusive access to such non-Yemeni luxury commodities as various spices and condiments from southern Asia and ostrich plumes and ivory from eastern Africa. The three most famous and largest of these empires were the Minaean (Maʿīn), the Sabaean (Sabaʾ, the biblical Sheba), and the Ḥimyarite (Ḥimyar, called Homeritae by the Romans), all of which were known throughout the ancient Mediterranean world; their periods of ascendancy overlap somewhat, extending from roughly 1200 BCE to 525 CE.

The Romans began expanding their power and influence to the Red Sea in the 1st century CE and soon learned the secrets of the Yemeni traders—namely, the true source of luxury commodities provided by the Yemenis and how to exploit the monsoon winds to traffic between Red Sea ports and those of southern Asia and eastern Africa, where these treasures could be found. It was only a matter of time before Yemen, unable to compete effectively against imperial Rome, went into economic decline, and the subsequent loss of revenue made it impossible for Yemen to maintain its extensive cities and attendant facilities. The most famous instance was the failure to maintain the Great Dam at Maʾrib—the heart of a monumental irrigation project and one of the engineering marvels of the ancient world. Its rupture sometime in the 6th century CE constitutes the symbolic end to the long era of the Yemeni trading kingdoms.

The last Ḥimyarite king, Dhū Nuwās (Yūsuf Ashʿar; c. 6th century CE), was a convert to Judaism who carried out a major massacre of the Christian population of Yemen. The survivors called for aid from the Byzantine emperor, who arranged to have an army from the Christian kingdom of Aksum (in what is now Ethiopia) invade Yemen in order to punish Dhū Nuwās. The leader of the Aksumite campaign was Abraha. After overthrowing Dhū Nuwās and conducting a massacre of Jews, Abraha stayed on to rule the Yemen. His attempt to extend his rule farther north, into the Hejaz (the western coastal region of the Arabian Peninsula), was ultimately a failure, though his effort to besiege Mecca is reported in the Qurʾān.

The Ḥimyarites grew resentful of the Aksumites, who they came to view as usurpers, and sought the support of the Sāsānian dynasty of Persia to expel them. By obliging, the Persians added the satrapy of Yemen to their domains. The last Persian governor of Yemen apparently converted to Islam in 628 CE, accepting the political dominance of the Muslim community.

The advent of Islam
Islam spread readily and quickly in Yemen, perhaps because of the century of economic decline and the atrocious behaviour of both Jews and Christians during that time. The Prophet Muhammad sent his son-in-law as governor, and two of Yemen’s most famous mosques—that in Janadiyyah (near Taʿizz) and the Great Mosque in Sanaa (said to have incorporated some materials from earlier Jewish and Christian structures)—are thought to be among the earliest examples of Islamic architecture.

Despite the fact that Muhammad’s first successor, the caliph Abū Bakr (served 632–634), managed to unify the Arabian Peninsula, it was not long before Yemen once again demonstrated its fractious nature. Often when the caliph sent a representative to put down rebellions or deal with other problems, the representative would establish his own dynasty. Such was the case with Muḥammad ibn Ziyād, who early in the 9th century founded the city of Zabīd as his capital. (See Ziyādid dynasty.)

For the history of Yemen, however, the most important event after the triumph of Islam was the introduction in the 9th century of the Zaydī sect from Iraq—a group of Shiʿi who accepted Zayd ibn ʿAlī, a direct descendant of Muhammad, as the last legitimate successor to the Prophet. Much of Yemeni culture and civilization for the next 1,000 years was to bear the stamp of Zaydī Islam. That same span of time was host to a confusing series of factional, dynastic, local, and imperial rulers contesting against one another and against the Zaydīs for control of Yemen. Among them were the Ṣulayḥids and the Fāṭimids, who were Ismāʿīlīs (another Shiʿi branch); the Ayyūbids; and the Rasūlids, whose long rule (13th–15th century) firmly established Sunnism in southern and western Yemen.

Yemen next appeared on the world stage when, according to one account, the leader of a Sufi religious order discovered the stimulating properties of coffee as a beverage, probably about the beginning of the 15th century. As a result, Yemen and the Red Sea became an arena of conflict between the Egyptians, the Ottomans, and various European powers seeking control over the emerging market for Coffea arabica as well as over the long-standing trade in condiments and spices from the East; this conflict occupied most of the 16th and 17th centuries. By the beginning of the 18th century, however, the route between Europe and Asia around Africa had become the preferred one, and the world had once again lost interest in Yemen. In the meantime, the coffee plant had been smuggled out of Yemen and transplanted into a great variety of new and more-profitable locales, from Asia to the New World. The effect of the redirection of trade was dramatic: cities such as Aden and Mocha (as the name would suggest, once a major coffee centre), which had burgeoned with populations in excess of 10,000, shrank to villages of a few hundred.

The age of imperialism
Developments in the 19th century were fateful for Yemen. The determination of various European powers to establish a presence in the Middle East elicited an equally firm determination in other powers to thwart such efforts. For Yemen, the most important participants in the drama were the British, who took over Aden in 1839, and the Ottoman Empire, which at mid-century moved back into North Yemen, from which it had been driven by the Yemenis two centuries earlier. The interests and activities of these two powers in the Red Sea basin and Yemen were substantially intensified by the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 and the reemergence of the Red Sea route as the preferred passage between Europe and East Asia. As the Ottomans expanded inland and established themselves in Sanaa and Taʿizz, the British expanded north and east from Aden, eventually establishing protectorates over more than a dozen of the many local statelets; this was done more in the interest of protecting Aden’s hinterland from the Ottomans and their Yemeni adversaries than out of any desire to add the territory and people there to the British Empire. By the early 20th century the growing clashes between the British and the Ottomans along the undemarcated border posed a serious problem; in 1904 a joint commission surveyed the border, and a treaty was concluded, establishing the frontier between Ottoman North Yemen and the British possessions in South Yemen. Later, of course, both Yemens considered the treaty an egregious instance of non-Yemeni interference in domestic affairs.

The north became independent at the end of World War I in 1918, with the departure of the Ottoman forces; the imam of the Zaydīs, Yaḥyā Maḥmūd al-Mutawakkil, became the de facto ruler in the north by virtue of his lengthy campaign against the Ottoman presence in Yemen. In the 1920s Imam Yaḥyā sought to consolidate his hold on the country by working to bring the Shāfiʿī areas under his administrative jurisdiction and by suppressing much of the intertribal feuding and tribal opposition to the imamate. In an effort to enhance the effectiveness of his campaigns against the tribes and other fractious elements, the imam sent a group of Yemeni youth to Iraq in the mid-1930s to learn modern military techniques and weaponry. These students would eventually become the kernel of domestic opposition to Yaḥyā and his policies.

Yemeni independence allowed the imam to resuscitate Zaydī claims to “historic Yemen,” which included Aden and the protectorate states, as well as an area farther north that had been occupied only recently by an expanding Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, including the province of Asir and some important areas around the Najrān oasis and Jīzān. These areas became a point of conflict with the house of Saʿūd. Yaḥyā, of course, did not recognize the standing Anglo-Ottoman border agreement.

The British, on the other hand, retained control over the south, which they considered strategically and economically important to their empire. Friction between the imamate and Britain characterized the entire interwar period, as Imam Yaḥyā sought to include the south in the united Yemen that he perceived to be his patrimony. The British in the meantime were consolidating their position in the south. The most important change was the incorporation of the Ḥaḍramawt and its great valley into the protectorate system—the result of the labours of British diplomat Harold Ingrams, who negotiated the famous “Ingrams’s Peace” among the more than 1,400 tribes and clans that had been feuding in that district for decades.

By the end of World War II in 1945, dissatisfaction with Yaḥyā and his imamate had spread to a rather wide segment of Yemeni society, including both secular and Muslim reformers and modernists, other elements of the traditional elite, and even the ʿulamāʾ (religious scholars). This tide of dissent culminated in early 1948 in the assassination of Yaḥyā and a coup by a varied coalition of dissidents. Much to the consternation of the plotters, however, Yaḥyā’s son Aḥmad succeeded in bringing together many of the tribal elements of the north, overthrew the new government, and installed himself as imam. Although Imam Aḥmad ibn Yaḥyā had indicated that he supported many of the popular political, economic, and social demands (e.g., creation of a cabinet with real responsibilities, abandonment of the principle of economic autarky, and the establishment of free public education), his own government soon resembled his father’s in nearly all respects. An attempt on Aḥmad’s life in 1955 only increased repression; indeed, his paranoia concerning the loyalty of major tribal elements prompted actions that eventually cost his son tribal support during the civil war after the 1962 revolution.

Ethnic groups
The people of Yemen overwhelmingly consider themselves Arabs, but they have tended to divide themselves between northern and southern groups, a historical division that has linguistic roots but which is otherwise difficult to trace. Yemenis of northern origin, for example, are said to have descended from Mesopotamians who entered the region in the 1st millennium BCE, and they claim ancestry of the biblical figure Ismāʿīl (Ishmael). The southern group, which represents the old South Arabian stock, claims descent from Qaḥṭān, the biblical Joktan.

Ethnic minorities include the Mahra, a people whose roots are unclear and who occupy a part of eastern Yemen, as well as the island of Socotra, and who speak a variant of the ancient Himyaritic language. (See Mahra Sultanate.) On the Tihāmah coastal plain, in-migrations from Ethiopia and Somalia have occurred over many centuries. There is a clear African admixture in the coastal population as well as a distinct social group known as the Akhdām, who perform menial tasks and are the closest thing to a caste in Yemen. In the far north there are still small remnants of the once-large Jewish communities (most migrated to Israel after 1948), while in the area of Aden and the eastern regions there are distinct Somali, Indonesian, and Indian elements in the population, legacies of the British colonial era as well of economic and political ties extending back over two millennia.

Among Arab groups, tribal affiliation is another deep-seated component of social identity. Some tribal confederations have histories spanning more than two millennia. These affiliations continue to serve as a key basis for political and social organization throughout the country, although the postindependence governments of both South Yemen and, to a lesser extent, North Yemen set out to eradicate what then were considered reactionary cultural institutions. Although efforts toward detribalization were at least in part effective, subsequent events indicated that such identifications were still socially, economically, and politically relevant.

Languages
More than nine-tenths of Yemenis speak some dialect of Arabic as their first language, and Modern Standard Arabic—the literary and cultural language of the broader Arab world—is taught in schools. There are several main dialects, but minor differences often occur within smaller geographic areas. The Arabic of the rural areas of the south is still heavily influenced by the ancient South Arabian languages. A dialect of Judeo-Arabic spoken by the Jewish community has fallen almost entirely out of use in Yemen. Hindi, Somali, and several African languages are spoken in pockets. Several ancient Semitic dialects, including Bathari, Mehri, and Socotri (Soqotri), remain in a chiefly oral capacity. Those languages have tended to recede as literacy in Arabic has become more common.

Religion
Throughout society, the broadest distinctions between population groups are based not on ethnicity but on religious affiliation. Islam is the state religion, and the Sunni branch of Islam, represented by the Shāfiʿī school, predominates. The Shiʿi minority consists of the Zaydī school, which has long been politically dominant in the mountainous highlands of the north, and the Ismāʿīlīs, now a relatively small group found in the Haraz region of northern Yemen and in Jabal Manakhah, the mountainous area west of Sanaa. The non-Muslim community is very small, consisting mostly of foreign visitors and workers. All are free to worship as they wish—including the Jewish community—but, as in most conservative Muslim countries, proselytizing of Muslims by non-Muslims is illegal.

Historically, Yemen has had its share of Islamic militants, particularly since the return of combatants who fought in the 1980s on the side of the mujahideen (Arabic: mujāhidūn, “those who engage in jihad”) in the Afghan War (1978–92).

Yemen is a part of the Islamic world and as such reflects many of the contemporary trends in Islam. Most Yemenis are Muslim and are tolerant of non-Muslims as well as of the various branches of Islam. While proud of their Islamic heritage, Yemenis are also intensely proud of their pre-Islamic history, including that of the Sabaʾ and Ḥaḍramawt kingdoms. In their extensive networks of overland and maritime trade, the ancient Yemenis encountered myriad cultures and civilizations. There is ample evidence of Greek, Roman, Indian, Indonesian, and Chinese influence on various aspects of both traditional and contemporary Yemeni culture.

Daily life and social customs
Yemen shares in many of the customs and lifeways that are found in other parts of the Arab world. Culture is intensely patriarchal, and households usually consist of an extended family living in a single domicile or family compound. The head of the family is the eldest male, who makes all significant decisions for the family and its members. Women play a secondary role in running the household and raising the children and, in rural areas, helping to work the family farm. Though nearly one-fourth of Yemeni women obtain work outside the home, a woman traditionally earns most of her social status through bearing children, particularly males. The birth of a male child is considered one of the most important social events in Yemeni society and is followed almost immediately by a circumcision ceremony. Though prohibited by law in 2001, female genital cutting still occurs, taking place primarily in private and varying significantly by region.

Marriages are almost always arranged and frequently are undertaken at a young age. Although the opinion of a potential bride or groom might be solicited on the issue, the final decision on marriage belongs with the head of the household. As in many parts of the Islamic world, endogamy (the practice of marrying someone from within one’s own kin group) is common, the preferred marriage being with a paternal first cousin of the opposite gender. The practice of mahr (bride-price, given by the father of the groom) is a usual part of the marriage ceremony. Divorce is not common, but neither is there a stigma attached to it. Men may have as many as four wives at the same time, though in practice it is rare for a man to take more than one wife.

Yemeni society is tribally based, and trust and assurance most often are measured by degree of consanguinity. Families are very close and are the focus of the individual’s primary devotion; one’s second allegiance is to the tribe, an extended family unit that ordinarily traces its ties to a common eponymous ancestor. In rural Yemen, state authority is weak, and disputes between tribes are frequently solved through violence. The art of the feud is still quite real, and, as a consequence, Yemen is a gun culture. Virtually every household has at least one weapon, and men and boys often carry firearms in public. Even when not carrying a pistol or a rifle, most Yemeni males—particularly those belonging to a rural tribe—will carry a dagger, the traditional janbiyyah (or jambiyyah), a short, broad, curved blade sheathed on a belt worn across the abdomen and serving as a signal of one’s status within social and tribal hierarchies.

The traditional nature of Yemeni society is reflected in choices of attire, though the native dress of Yemen differs somewhat from that found in other conservative parts of the Arabian Peninsula. Men sometimes wear the full-length, loose-fitting thawb—frequently with a jacket over it—but more often the traditional fūṭah, a saronglike wraparound kilt, is worn with a shirt. The turban is a common type of head covering, and a finely woven bamboo hat (shaped somewhat like a fez) called a kofiya (or kofia) is a more formal choice of headgear. There are various forms of dress for women, depending on the social role a woman plays and where she lives. In North Yemen, women in cities and towns wore the sharsaf, a black skirt, scarf, and veil ensemble that covers the entire body. In South Yemen, the regime that succeeded the British after 1967 vigorously opposed this women’s dress code, and this opposition prevailed especially in the towns and cities. In the countryside, clothing for women tends to be somewhat more utilitarian and may consist of a dress or robe that provides for a greater range of movement and under which, in some parts of Yemen, it is not uncommon for a woman to wear a pair of loose slacks known as a sirwāl. Also in the countryside, a woman’s face may or may not be covered, and dresses are sometimes sewn from brightly coloured fabric. Working women frequently wear a broad-brimmed straw hat (dhola) to ward off the sun.

Traditional Yemeni cuisine is broadly similar to that found in other areas of the Arabian Peninsula, but it is also heavily influenced by the cuisine of eastern Africa and South Asia. The major meats are chicken, mutton, and goat. Other staples include potatoes, onions, and tomatoes. There are several types of bread; unleavened flat bread is typical. A popular dish in Yemen is saltah, a stew of lamb or chicken that is heavily spiced with fenugreek and other herbs. Tea is a common drink, and coffee is very popular. Alcoholic beverages are considered culturally and religiously inappropriate, though they are available.

Jordan occupies an area rich in archaeological remains and religious traditions. The Jordanian desert was home to hunters from the Early Paleolithic Period; their flint tools have been found widely distributed throughout the region. In the southeastern part of the country, at Mount Al-Ṭubayq, rock carvings date from several prehistoric periods, the earliest of which have been attributed to the Paleolithic-Mesolithic era. The site at Tulaylāt al-Ghassūl in the Jordan Valley of a well-built village with painted plaster walls may represent transitional developments from the Neolithic to the Chalcolithic period.

The Early Bronze Age (c. 3000–2100 BC) is marked by deposits at the base of Dhībān. Although many sites have been found in the northern portion of the country, few have been excavated, and little evidence of settlement in this period is found south of Al-Shawbak. The region’s early Bronze Age culture was terminated by a nomadic invasion that destroyed the principal towns and villages, marking the end of an apparently peaceful period of development. Security was not reestablished until the Egyptians arrived after 1580 BC. It was once believed that the area was unoccupied from 1900 to 1300 BC, but a systematic archaeological survey has shown that the country had a settled population throughout the period. This was confirmed by the discovery of a small temple at Amman with Egyptian, Mycenaean, and Cypriot imported objects.

Ethnic groups
The overwhelming majority of the people are Arabs, principally Jordanians and Palestinians; there is also a significant minority of Bedouin, who were by far the largest indigenous group before the influx of Palestinians following the Arab-Israeli wars of 1948–49 and 1967. Jordanians of Bedouin heritage remain committed to the Hāshimite regime, which has ruled the country since 1923, despite having become a minority there. Although the Palestinian population is often critical of the monarchy, Jordan is the only Arab country to grant wide-scale citizenship to Palestinian refugees. Other minorities include a sizeable number of Syrian refugees who fled to Jordan because of the Syrian Civil War, as well as a number of Iraqis who fled to Jordan as a result of the Persian Gulf War and Iraq War. There are also smaller Circassian (known locally as Cherkess or Jarkas) and Armenian communities. A small number of Turkmen (who speak either an ancient form of the Turkmen language or the Azeri language) also reside in Jordan.

The indigenous Arabs, whether Muslim or Christian, used to trace their ancestry from the northern Arabian Qaysī (Maʿddī, Nizārī, ʿAdnānī, or Ismāʿīlī) tribes or from the southern Arabian Yamanī (Banū Kalb or Qaḥṭānī) groups. Only a few tribes and towns have continued to observe this Qaysī-Yamanī division—a pre-Islamic split that was once an important, although broad, source of social identity as well as a point of social friction and conflict.

Languages
Nearly all the people speak Arabic, the country’s official language. There are various dialects spoken, with local inflections and accents, but these are mutually intelligible and similar to the type of Levantine Arabic spoken in parts of Palestine, Lebanon, and Syria. There is, as in all parts of the Arab world, a significant difference between the written language—known as Modern Standard Arabic—and the colloquial, spoken form. The former is similar to Classical Arabic and is taught in school. Most Circassians have adopted Arabic in daily life, though some continue to speak Adyghe (one of the Caucasian languages). Armenian is also spoken in pockets, but bilingualism or outright assimilation to the Arabic language is common among all minorities.

Religion
Virtually the entire population is Sunni Muslim; Christians constitute most of the rest, of whom two-thirds adhere to the Greek Orthodox church. Other Christian groups include the Greek Catholics, also called the Melchites, or Catholics of the Byzantine rite, who recognize the supremacy of the Roman pope; the Roman Catholic community, headed by a pope-appointed patriarch; and the small Syrian Orthodox Patriarchate of Antioch, or Syrian Jacobite Church, whose members use Syriac in their liturgy. Most non-Arab Christians are Armenians, and the majority belong to the Gregorian, or Armenian, Orthodox church, while the rest attend the Armenian Catholic Church. There are several Protestant denominations representing communities whose converts came almost entirely from other Christian sects.

The Druze, an offshoot of the Ismāʿīlī Shiʿi sect, number a few hundred and reside in and around Amman. About 1,000 Bahāʾī—who in the 19th century also split off from Shiʿi Islam—live in Al-ʿAdasiyyah in the Jordan Valley. The Armenians, Druze, and Bahāʾī are both religious and ethnic communities. The Circassians are mostly Sunni, and they along with the closely related Chechens (Shīshān)—a group numbering about 1,000, who are descendants of 19th-century immigrants from the Caucasus Mountains—make up the most important non-Arab minority.

The arts
Both private and governmental efforts have been made to foster the arts through various cultural centres, notably in Amman and Irbid, and through the establishment of art and cultural festivals throughout the country. Modernity has weakened the traditional Islamic injunction against the depiction of images of humans and animals; thus, in addition to traditional architecture, decorative design, and various handicrafts, it is possible to find non-utilitarian forms of both representational and abstract painting and sculpture. Elaborate calligraphy and geometric designs often enhance manuscripts and mosques. As in the rest of the region, the oral tradition is prominent in literary expression. Jordan’s most famous poet, Muṣṭafā Wahbah al-Ṭāl, ranks among the major Arab poets of the 20th century. After World War II a number of important poets and prose writers emerged, though few have achieved an international reputation.

Traditional visual arts survive in works of tapestry, embroidery, leather, pottery, and ceramics, and in the manufacture of wool and goat-hair rugs with varicoloured stripes; singing is also important, as is storytelling. Villagers have special songs for births, circumcisions, weddings, funerals, and harvesting. Several types of dabkah (group dances characterized by pounding feet on the floor to mark the rhythm) are danced on festive occasions, while the sahjah is a well-known Bedouin dance. The Circassian minority has a sword dance and several other Cossack dances. As part of its effort to preserve local performing arts, the government sponsors a national troupe that is regularly featured on state radio and television programs.

Jordan has a small film industry, and sites within the country, such as Petra and the Ramm valley, have served as locations for major foreign productions, such as director David Lean’s Lawrence of Arabia (1962) and Steven Spielberg’s Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989).

Cultural Life

Daily life and social customs
Jordan is an integral part of the Arab world and thus shares a cultural tradition common to the region. The family is of central importance to Jordanian life. Although their numbers have fallen as many have settled and adopted urban culture, the rural Bedouin population still follows a more traditional way of life, preserving customs passed down for generations. Village life revolves around the extended family, agriculture, and hospitality; modernity exists only in the form of a motorized vehicle for transportation. Urban-dwelling Jordanians, on the other hand, enjoy all aspects of modern, popular culture, from theatrical productions and musical concerts to operas and ballet performances. Most major towns have movie theatres that offer both Arab and foreign films. Younger Jordanians frequent Internet cafés in the capital, where espresso is served at computer terminals.

The country’s cuisine features dishes using beans, olive oil, yogurt, and garlic. Jordan’s two most popular dishes are msakhan, lamb or mutton and rice with a yogurt sauce, and mansaf, chicken cooked with onions, which are both served on holidays and on special family occasions. Daily fare includes khubz (flatbread) with vegetable dips, grilled meats, and stews, served with sweet tea or coffee flavoured with cardamom.

Holidays that are celebrated in the kingdom include the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, the two ʿīds (festivals; ʿĪd al-Fiṭr and ʿĪd al-Aḍḥā), and other major Islamic festivals, along with secular events such as Independence Day and the birthday of the late King Ḥussein.

In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the dominant tribal faction was the Qasimi family (Āl Qawāsim; singular Qāsimī), whose ships controlled the maritime commerce (notably fishing and pearling) concentrated in the lower Persian Gulf and in much of the Indian Ocean. Attacks on British and Indian ships led to a British naval attack in 1819 that defeated the Qasimi forces, and the British became dominant in the region.

The Qasimi family thus lost power and influence in the region, and the Banū Yās tribal confederation of Abu Dhabi became dominant. The Banū Yās were centred on the Al-ʿAyn and Al-Liwāʾ oases of Abu Dhabi, and their strength was land-based. Under the leadership of the Āl Nahyān (members of the Āl Bū Falāḥ tribe), the Banū Yās have been the most powerful element in the region since the mid-19th century. The principal sheikhs along the coast signed a series of agreements during that century—a general treaty of peace in 1820, the perpetual maritime truce in 1853 (which gave the Trucial Coast its name), and exclusive agreements in 1892 restricting their foreign relations to British discretion—and the sheikhdoms became known as the Trucial States.

A council of the Trucial States began to meet semiannually in 1952 to discuss administrative issues. In January 1968, following the announcement by the British government that its forces would be withdrawn from the Persian Gulf by late 1971, Trucial Oman and the sheikhdoms of Qatar and Bahrain initiated plans to form a confederation. After three years of negotiations, however, Qatar and Bahrain decided to become independent sovereign states, and the former Trucial States, excluding Raʾs al-Khaymah, announced the formation of the United Arab Emirates in December 1971. Raʾs al-Khaymah joined the federation in February 1972.

Ethnic groups
Only about one-ninth of the emirates’ residents are citizens. The remainder are mostly foreign workers and their dependents, with South Asians constituting the largest of these groups. Arabs from countries other than the United Arab Emirates and Iranians account for another significant portion. Southeast Asians, including many Filipinos, have immigrated in increasing numbers to work in various capacities.

Languages and religion
The official language of the United Arab Emirates is Arabic. Modern Standard Arabic is taught in schools, and most native Emiratis speak a dialect of Gulf Arabic that is generally similar to that spoken in surrounding countries. A number of languages are spoken among the expatriate community, including various dialects of Pashto, Hindi, Balochi, and Persian. English is also widely spoken.

The arts
As is true of other countries of the Arabian Peninsula, traditional arts such as pottery, weaving, and metalworking occupy a prominent place in cultural life. The manufacture of handicrafts is an economic mainstay for smaller villages, providing goods to sell in the souks (open-air markets) that lie at the heart of small towns and large cities alike. Traditional storytelling remains a much-admired art form, and Emirati culture, like Arab culture on the whole, esteems poetry, whether it is classical, contemporary, or the Bedouin vernacular form called nabaṭī. Traditional music, such as the ḥudāʾ—sung originally by caravanners while on the trail—is enjoyed alongside popular music from abroad, and traditional dances such as the ʿayyālah (often called ʿarḍah), a type of sword dance, are performed on special occasions.

The Ministry of Information and Culture sponsors a number of events annually, including plays and music festivals, and helps support the numerous folklore associations in the emirates. The Sharjah Theatre Festival brings together talent from all seven emirates. Annual international book fairs in Sharjah and Abu Dhabi cities are highly regarded, and film festivals in the emirates are gaining in popularity and reputation. The Dubai Air Show has become a major regional event.

Cultural Life
The cultural traditions of the United Arab Emirates are rooted in Islam and resonate with the wider Arab world, especially with the neighbouring states of the Persian Gulf. The federation has experienced the impact of Islamic resurgence, though Islam in the emirates is generally less austere than in Saudi Arabia. Tribal identities in the United Arab Emirates remain fairly strong, despite urbanization and the presence of a large expatriate community, and the family is still considered the strongest and most cohesive social unit.

In several ways, change is apparent in the federation’s cultural life. Changes in attitudes toward marriage and the employment of women lead the region. The government takes an active role in the empowerment of women, and the constitution includes a number of guarantees and protections for women. Just under half of Emirati women participate in the labour force.

Although few Emiratis retain the lifeways of their forebears—practicing a nomadic lifestyle or plying the Persian Gulf in search of fish and pearls—many traditional modes of living continue. The major Islamic holidays, including the two ʿīds (festivals), Eid al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, are observed among the Muslim majority, and traditional dress is still the norm. For women, traditional attire consists of a light chemise known as a dirʿ, which is often worn beneath a more ornate dress (thawb). Beneath the dress a sirwāl, a type of loose trouser, is worn. Outside the home or in the presence of strangers, women still cover themselves with a dark cloak known as an ʿabāyah and cover their heads with a scarf called a shāl, which may also serve as a veil (ḥijāb or burquʿ). Fabrics are often delicate, colourful, and highly embroidered, and Emirati women wear a variety of fine gold and silver jewelry.

The traditional garb for men consists of a long, simple, ankle-length garment known as a kandūrah or dishdashah (or also thawb). Usually made of white cotton, the garment may instead be made of a heavier material and in a variety of colours. The standard head covering is the ghuṭrah, a light scarf (usually white or white-and-red checkered, also known as a kaffiyeh) held in place by a black cord of camel hair known as an ʿiqāl. Colour, style, and material of headwear may vary among groups.

Emirati cuisine reflects the variety of cultural influences that the country has experienced over the centuries. Hummus, fūl (spiced bean paste), falafel, and shawarma (broiled meat served on flatbread) are dishes standard to the Arab world, whereas the influence of Iranian cuisine can be seen in the Emirati preference for rice as a staple and ingredients such as saffron, cardamom, and rose water as flavouring in desserts. Among the favorite dishes is makbūs—poultry, meat, or fish atop a bed of rice spiced with seasonings and dried lime. As in all countries of the region, lamb and chicken are the preferred meats, and fresh fruits—including dates, figs, lemons, and limes—and vegetables and flatbread (khubz) are daily fare. The preferred drink is coffee, served in the popular fashion—hot, strong, and sweet.

The nation of Israel is the world’s first Jewish state in two millennia. It represents for Jews the restoration of their homeland after the centuries-long Diaspora that followed the demise of the Herodian kingdom in the 1st century CE. As such, it remains the focus of widespread Jewish immigration.

Origins of a modern Jewish state
Zionism
Modern Israel springs from both religious and political sources. The biblical promise of a land for the Jews and a return to the Temple in Jerusalem were enshrined in Judaism and sustained Jewish identity through an exile of 19 centuries following the failed revolts in Judaea against the Romans early in the Common Era. By the 1800s, fewer than 25,000 Jews still lived in their ancient homeland, and these were largely concentrated in Jerusalem, then a provincial backwater of the Ottoman Empire.

In the 1880s, however, a rise in European anti-Semitism and revived Jewish national pride combined to inspire a new wave of emigration to Palestine in the form of agricultural colonies financed by the Rothschilds and other wealthy families. Political Zionism came a decade later, when the Austrian journalist Theodor Herzl began advocating a Jewish state as the political solution for both anti-Semitism (he had covered the sensational Dreyfus affair in France) and a Jewish secular identity. Herzl’s brief and dramatic bid for international support from the major powers at the First Zionist Congress (August 1897) failed, but, after his death in 1904, the surviving Zionist organization under the leadership of Chaim Weizmann undertook a major effort to increase the Jewish population in Palestine while continuing to search for political assistance.

These efforts could only be on a small scale while the Ottoman Turks ruled what the Europeans called Palestine (from Palaestina, “Land of the Philistines,” the Latin name given Judaea by the Romans). But in 1917, during World War I, the Zionists persuaded the British government to issue the Balfour Declaration, a document that committed Britain to facilitate the establishment of a “Jewish homeland” in Palestine. Amid considerable controversy over conflicting wartime promises to the Arabs and French, Britain succeeded in gaining the endorsement of the declaration by the new League of Nations, which placed Palestine under British mandate. This achievement reflected a heady mixture of religious and imperial motivations that Britain would find difficult to reconcile in the troubled years ahead.

Immigration and conflict
The Zionist goal of Jewish statehood was violently opposed by the local Arab leaders, who saw the Ottoman defeat as an opportunity either to create their own state or to join a larger Arab entity—thus reviving the old Arab empire of early Islamic times. British efforts to bring the Zionists and the Arabs together in a cooperative government failed, and serious disorders, escalating into organized violence, were to mark the mandate, culminating in the Arab Revolt of 1936–39. This period also marked the birth of local Jewish defense forces. The largest and most widely representative of the various militias, the Haganah (“Defense”) was a branch of the Jewish Agency, the organization most responsible for bringing Jews to Israel.

Religious and ethnic groups
Jews constitute about three-fourths of the total population of Israel. Almost all the rest are Palestinian Arabs, of whom most (roughly three-fourths) are Muslim; the remaining Arabs are Christians and Druze, who each make up only a small fraction of the total population. Arabs are the overwhelming majority in the Gaza Strip and the occupied territory of the West Bank. (For information on Palestinians residing outside Israel, see Palestine.)

Jews
The Jewish population is diverse. Jews from eastern and western Europe, the Middle East and North Africa, Central Asia, North America, and Latin America have been immigrating to this area since the late 19th century. Differing in ethnic origin and culture, they brought with them languages and customs from a variety of countries. The Jewish community today includes survivors of the Holocaust, offspring of those survivors, and émigrés escaping anti-Semitism. The revival of Hebrew as a common language and a strong Israeli national consciousness have facilitated the assimilation of newcomers to Israel but not completely eradicated native ethnicities. For example, religious Jews immigrating to Israel generally continue to pray in synagogues established by their respective communities.

Religious Jewry in Israel constitutes a significant and articulate section of the population. As such, it is often at odds with a strong secular sector that seeks to prevent religious bodies and authorities from dominating national life. The two main religious-ethnic groupings are those Jews from central and eastern Europe and their descendants who follow the Ashkenazic traditions and those Jews from the Mediterranean region and North Africa who follow the Sephardic. There are two chief rabbis in Israel, one Ashkenazi and one Sephardi. Tension is frequent between the two groups, largely because of their cultural differences and the social and political dominance of the Ashkenazim in Israeli society. Until recently, it was generally true that the Sephardim tended to be poorer, less educated, and less represented in higher political office than the Ashkenazim.

Karaites
The Karaites are a Jewish sect that emerged in the early Middle Ages. Several thousand members live in Ramla, and more recently in Beersheba and Ashdod. Like other religious minorities, they have their own religious courts and communal organizations. Considered part of Jewish society, they have maintained their separate identity by resisting intermarriage and preserving their religious rites based on the Torah as the sole source of religious law.

Samaritans
Samaritans trace their roots to those Jews not dispersed when the Assyrians conquered Israel in the 8th century BCE. About half of the few hundred surviving members of the Samaritan community live near Tel Aviv in the town of Ḥolon. The rest live on Mount Gerizim (Arabic: Jabal al-Ṭūr), near Nāblus in the West Bank. They preserve their separate religious and communal organizations and speak Arabic but pray in an archaic form of Hebrew. They participate in national life as part of the Jewish section of the population.

Arabs
Arabs constitute the largest single minority in Israel, and though most are Muslims of the Sunnite branch, Arab Christians form a significant minority, particularly in the Galilee region in northern Israel. Arabs, whether Christian, Muslim, or Druze, speak a dialect of Levantine Arabic and learn Modern Standard Arabic in school. An increasing number also avail themselves of higher education within Israel’s public schools and colleges, and many younger Arabs are now bilingual in Hebrew. Although most Israeli Arabs consider themselves Palestinians, all are full Israeli citizens with political and civil rights that are, with the exception of some limitations on military service, equal to those of Israeli Jews. Many Arabs participate actively in the Israeli political process, and several Arab political parties have members in the Israeli Knesset. Despite this inclusiveness, however, many Israeli Arabs still see themselves as living in an occupied state, and suspicions and antagonism persist.

Muslims
The overwhelming majority of Israel’s Muslims are Arabs. Like all other religious communities, Muslims enjoy considerable autonomy in dealing with matters of personal status. They have separate religious courts for issues such as marriage, divorce, and inheritance. The state oversees their religious institutions. Israel’s Bedouin, roughly one-tenth of the Arab population, are exclusively Muslim.

Christians
Most Christians in Israel are Arabs, and Christian communities in Israel, regardless of ethnicity, have a wide degree of autonomy in religious and communal affairs. The Greek Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches are the largest denominations, and most of them are found in Jerusalem. Apart from the Greek Orthodox church, which has a patriarchate in Jerusalem, each church is dependent to a degree on a supreme hierarch abroad. These communities include Roman Catholics and Uniates (Melchites, Maronites, Chaldean Catholics, Syrian Catholics, and Armenian Catholics). Jerusalem also has a Russian Orthodox community. The Evangelical, Episcopal, and Lutheran churches are small and primarily Arabic-speaking.

Druze
The Druze, who live in villages in Galilee and around Mount Carmel, have traditionally formed a closed, tight-knit community and practice a secretive religion founded in 11th-century Fāṭimid Egypt. Though Israeli Druze maintain contact with coreligionists in Lebanon and Syria, members of each group adhere to the authority of the country of their residence. Israel has recognized the Druze as a separate Arab community since 1957, and Israeli Druze serve in the armed forces. Druze have traditionally been agriculturists, but younger members have found employment throughout the economy.

Other groups
The Bahāʾī faith, a universal religion founded in Iran in the mid-19th century, is the only religion other than Judaism to have its world centre in Israel. A teaching centre, archive building, shrine, and administrative headquarters are located on Mount Carmel in Haifa. There are a few hundred adherents in Israel, most of whom are employed at the centre in Haifa.

The Circassians, who are Sunnite Muslims, emigrated from the Caucasus in the 1870s. They number a few thousand and live in villages in Galilee, preserving their native language and traditions. Older Circassians speak Arabic as well as the Circassian language, but members of the younger generation speak Hebrew. The men serve in the Israeli armed forces.

The arts
The Israel Philharmonic Orchestra has earned a worldwide reputation for classical music, and Israeli artists such as violinists Itzhak Perlman and Pinchas Zukerman and pianist and conductor Daniel Barenboim have had prominent international careers. Folk dancing and popular singing enjoy widespread interest and combine foreign elements with original creative manifestations. The Sephardic, Ashkenazic, and Arab Palestinian communities have all preserved parts of their ethnic music and dance traditions. In 2000 the Education Ministry began including Israeli-Arab writers in the literature curriculum of state secular schools. Painting and sculpture are still largely influenced by European schools, but local styles have begun to emerge, and several “primitive” artists whose works depict biblical and local themes have become popular. In literature, poetry, and drama, a concentration on themes of the Diaspora is giving way to an interest in national themes, including the Holocaust. Among Israel’s most distinguished writers is Shmuel Yosef Agnon (1888–1970), who received the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1966.

Thanks to an advanced and pervasive communication infrastructure, including cable, satellite, and Internet access, Israeli popular culture is well informed and tuned to the latest international trends and performers. New Israeli pop singers and groups performing in Hebrew emerge frequently. The sound is global and is influenced by folk, rock, and all the latest pop styles, but the lyrics are uniquely Israeli, reflecting the concerns of the nation’s youth. At the same time lively and locally produced talk shows in Hebrew are prime-time favourites. In addition to cable and satellite access, Arab neighbourhoods and towns bristle with TV antennas permitting reception from neighbouring Arab countries and making Arabic pop music widely available.

Cultural Life
The cultural milieu
There has been little cultural interchange between the Jewish and Arab sections of Israel’s population, although Jews arriving in Israel from communities throughout the world, including the Arab-Muslim Middle East, have brought with them both their own cultural inheritance and elements absorbed from the majority cultures in which they dwelt over the centuries. The intermingling of the Ashkenazi, Sephardi, and Middle Eastern traditions has been of profound importance in forging modern Israel; however, the arrival of immigrants from Russia and other former Soviet republics has slowed the trend, common among immigrants from central Europe and America, toward creating a cultural synthesis embracing East, West, and native Israeli society. The revival of the Hebrew language, not spoken since biblical times, has also been of great importance in the development of Israel’s modern culture. This diverse cultural heritage and shared language, along with a common Jewish tradition, both religious and historical, form the foundation of cultural life in Israel.